求1995年諾貝爾化學獎得主的介紹...20點!!!! - 社會議題

By Ingrid
at 2007-02-16T00:00

Table of Contents

我必須做一份研究報告，無奈只找到克魯琛的研究成果，而我必須要保羅‧克魯琛從「小學到研究所」的求學歷程(學校的名子)以及「研究到發表的過程」。這份資料對我很重要，拜託各位幫這個忙，謝謝！
p.s.另外兩位的生平也可以，謝謝！
已更新項目:
可以翻譯成中文嗎????我英文很爛。＝＝”

Tags: 社會議題

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By Anthony
at 2007-02-16T12:37

1995年諾貝爾化學獎是由三位大氣科學家所共同獲得
你說的其中一個克魯琛現任職於德國Max plank Institute for Chemistry
1927年生於美國俄亥俄洲，1952年獲芝加哥大學化學博士學位，曾在普林斯頓大學和堪薩斯大學任職多年，現任加洲大學化學系教授瑞典皇家科學院、瑞典皇家工程科學院院士
這三位學者分別為克魯琛教授與馬里奧‧莫利納教授及舍伍德‧羅蘭教授等兩位美國科學家，由於這三位學者在1970年代先後對臭氧層的濃度平衡機制的了解有突破性的貢獻，因而催化了日後化學在大氣科學領域的發展。
諾貝爾獎委員會選擇這三位學者的另一個原因乃由於人造的氟氯碳化物破壤臭氧層的爭議已塵埃落定，而此問題之影響所及非常深遠，直接攸關全人類未來的生存。筆者在以下的篇幅中將重點性的介紹這三位學者在大氣化學上的貢獻。同時筆者因為在過去（1987～1995年間）博士及博士後研究的階段中，跟隨Rowland教授從事大氣中氟氯碳化物的研究，因此對此位學者有較多的認識，特別在文中將Rowland個人做較多的介紹。
科學家首先對大氣中臭氧層的認識，起始於英國的物理學家Sidney Chapman，在1930年提出的光化學理論，此一理論描述了太陽光如何將三種不同的形式的氧（包括氧原子、氧分子及臭氧分子）在產生與消失之間達到平衡的狀態。同時Chapman理論也合理的解釋出為何臭氧的生成分佈在15至50公里處的高空，而形成所謂的臭氧層。由於它的存在，使得太陽光中對人類有害的高能紫外線能被吸收而不致到達地球表面。
然而在1950年代末期所進行的高空測量發現，由Chapman理論計算出的臭氧濃度遠高於觀測結果，顯示此理論可能忽略了一些能夠抵消臭氧生成的化學反應機制，因而使得平衡較有利於臭氧的生成。1964年比利時科學家Marcel Nicolet提出，大氣中的氫氧基會與臭氧分子反應而抵消部分過多的臭氧生成。之後，荷蘭籍的氣象學家Paul Crutzen在1970年提出氮氧基（NO或NO2）如何透過催化反應進一步的加強臭氧損失的機制：
在自然界中，NO及NO2的產生是由於土壤的微生物在代謝的過程中將氮元素變成一氧化二氮（N2O俗稱笑氣）而逐漸從土壤釋放至大氣中，其被光解後即成為一氧化氮自由基。儘管來自於氮氧基壓抑臭氧的量並不大，然而， Gwtzen的理論卻頭一次將微生物活動與大氣結構相連接，從而帶動了以後生物化學在地球科學上的發展。
至此，科學家對於控制臭氧平衡的了解尚僅止於自然界的化學行為，而之後在短短的三年間臭氧平衡的焦點便由氮而轉變至人造的氯。自那時起整個臭氧層或大氣的化學研究都或多或少的圍繞在氯的身上打轉。而在以後的臭氧危機中（註一），大氣科學家能夠很快的將研究矛頭指向氯，進而證實氯即為破壞臭氧層的元兇的理論催生者便是Mario Malina及F.Sherwood Rowland兩人。
1974年Maline和Rowland提出理論說明：人造的氟氯碳化物如二氟二氯甲烷（俗稱CFC-12）及三氟一氯甲烷（俗稱 CFC-11）等會在產品的使用過程中或壽命結束後，被排放至大氣中（這類產品包括噴霧罐、冷氣機冷媒或泡綿的發泡劑等），由於此類人造化學物質化性極為穩定，以致會在大氣中快速的累積。一般的損失管道如水解、氧化等並不能發生在氟氯碳化物身上，而其唯一的損失管道是紫外光的分解。當氟氯碳化物緩慢的自地表飄至臭氧層上空後，高能的紫外光（波長小於240nm）能夠將碳氯鍵破壞，釋放出氯自由基。如同先前所提到的氫氧基與氮氧基一般，帶有奇數電子的氯自由基很容易地找上化性不太穩定的臭氧分子而與之反應。同時氯自由基也扮演催化劑的角色，反覆地消耗臭氧分子：
根據計算，平均一個氯可以消耗十萬個臭氧分子，最後氯會形成氯化氫而被雨水帶下。
Malina與Rowland的結合註定了人類在臭氧危機中，不但能夠及時發現問題，同時也能及時拿出對策。至於兩人是在何種機緣下認識而共事，並且如何開始氟氯碳化物的研究將是本文以下敘述的重點。
其它有關他的基本資料
http://www.lnkp.gov.cn/info/display.aspx?id=3340&c...
2007-02-19 02:31:30 補充：
972年，在一次氣象學家與化學家共聚一堂的會議休息時段中，Rowland無意間聽到一位英國科學家James Lovelock談起他如何使用自己發明的電子捕獲偵測器（註二），測得空氣中的氟氯碳化物。Lovelack發現此物質不同於一般的空氣污染物質的是其濃度沒有什麼時空變化。然而由於當時的濃度很低（當時CFC-12的濃度約為270pptu，而如今已累積至520pptu），因此Lovelack並不以為意。在一旁聆聽的Rowland卻馬上察覺到Lovelack所測得的濃度和氟氯碳化物的生產總量幾乎相等，說明這類人造化合物的大氣滯留時間一定很長。
2007-02-19 02:31:51 補充：
數月之後，Rowland在某次會議上認識了甫自UC,Berbeley取得博士學位的Mario Malina，而Malina表明想要跟隨Rowland以光化學作為博士後研究的題目。在Rowland提出兩個具體的實驗題目後，Malina選擇了關於氟氯碳化物的題目。由於兩人對於這類物質的最終去處持有高度的好奇心，因此在往後的一年裡實驗便有了很大的突破。然而兩人自始自終都抱著憂喜參半的心情，喜的是實驗一直進行得很順利，而憂的是全人類未來可能面臨的災禍。
2007-02-19 02:32:02 補充：
當兩人將研究結果分別於1974年和1975年發表之後，立刻引起學界的辯論以及產業界的恐慌。在往後20年的歲月裡Rowland以近乎傳教士的精神到各處發表演說，甚至數度在州政府及國會的聽證會中作證，說明氟氯碳化物可能的危害。
2007-02-19 02:32:17 補充：
在最初的幾年裡，由於問題仍停留在理論階段，尚缺乏實際證據，對一般人而言總有距離太遙遠的感覺；因此在說服政府限制氟氯碳化物的問題上往往缺乏著力點。即便如此，Rowland-Malina理論也逐漸引起了一些正面的回應，例如在1975年奧立岡州成為美國第一個禁止氟氯碳化物用於噴霧罐中的州。1977年聯合國環境組織（UNEP）頭一次召開國際大會討論氟氯碳化物的問題，以及1978年美國環境保護署宣佈全面禁用此類物質於噴霧罐中。
2007-02-19 02:32:33 補充：
然而整個事件的轉捩點是在1985年，當時一位英國科學家Joseph Farman在Nature發表了他在南極近30年的臭氧觀測結果，南極的臭氧濃度明顯的在幾年之間劇降了近50％。此一結果立刻引起了各界的恐慌，臭氧危機於是正式的浮現出來。在危機意識的驅使下，大氣科學家隨即進行了大規模的南極探空活動，其中包括氣球探空、飛航探空以及衛星遙測等。在隨後的兩三年中所蒐集到的許多重要證據，均顯示南極上空的臭氧濃度在破洞發生前後，的確與氯濃度之間呈現「彼消我長」的反對應關係。
2007-02-19 02:33:06 補充：
今年初美國太空總署發佈了衛星遙測的結果，完全證實平流層中的氟與氯完全是源自於氟氯碳化物的光解。至此，有關Rowland-Malina理論的爭議終告塵埃落定。這一段臭氧危機的歷史演變突顯出這三位學者在關鍵處所做出的貢獻，如今在對付臭氧問題上科學家能及時發現問題並找出對策，此三位學者可說是居功厥偉。
因內容有點多　　PO在補充內容

By Valerie
at 2007-02-20T17:10

這是他的自傳,希望對您有幫助
I was born in Amsterdam on December, 3, 1933, the son of Anna Gurk and Jozef Crutzen. I have one sister who still lives in Amsterdam with her family. My mother's parents moved to the industrial Ruhr region in Germany from East Prussia towards the end of the last century. They were of mixed German and Polish origin. In 1929 at the age of 17, my mother, moved to Amsterdam to work as a housekeeper. There she met my father. He came from Vaals, a little town in the southeastern corner of the Netherlands, Bordering Belgium and Germany and very close to the historical German city of Aachen. He died in 1977. He had relatives in the Netherlands, Germany and Belgium. Thus, from both parents I inherited a cosmopolitan view of the world. My mother, now 84 years old, still lives in Amsterdam, mentally very alert, but since a few months ago, wheelchair-bound. Despite having worked in several countries outside The Netherlands since 1958, I have remained a Dutch citizen.
2007-02-16 22:23:16 補充：
In May, 1940, The Netherlands were overrun by the German army. In September of the same year I entered elementary school, "de grote school" (the big school), as it was popularly called. My six years of elementary school largely overlapped with the 2nd World War.
2007-02-16 22:25:09 補充：
Our school class had to move between different premises in Amsterdam after the German army had confiscated our original school building. The last months of the war, between the fall of 1944 and Liberation Day on May, 5, 1945, were particularly horrible.
2007-02-16 22:25:46 補充：
During the cold "hongerwinter" (winter of famine) of 1944-1945, there was a severe lack of food and heating fuels. Also water for drinking, cooking and washing was available only in limited quantities for a few hours per day, causing poor hygienic conditions.
2007-02-16 22:26:16 補充：
Many died of hunger and disease, including several of my schoolmates. Some relief came at the beginning of 1945 when the Swedish Red Cross dropped food supplies on parachutes from airplanes. To welcome them we waved our red, white and blue Dutch flags in the streets.
2007-02-16 22:31:49 補充：
I had of course not the slightest idea how important Sweden would become later in my life.
2007-02-16 22:32:27 補充：
We only had a few hours of school each week, but because of special help from one of the teachers, I was allowed together with two other schoolmates to continue to the next and final class of elementary school; unfortunately, all the others lost a year.
2007-02-16 22:34:23 補充：
More or less normal school education only became possible again with the start of the new school year in the fall of 1945.In 1946, after a successful entrance exam, I entered the "Hogere Burgerschool" (HBS), "Higher Citizen School",
2007-02-16 22:34:50 補充：
a 5 year long middle school, which prepared for University entrance. I finished this school in June, 1951, with natural sciences as my focal subjects.
2007-02-16 22:35:23 補充：
However, we all also had to become proficient in 3 foreign languages: French, English and German. I got considerable help in learning languages from my parents: German from my mother, French from my father.
2007-02-16 22:36:00 補充：
During those years, chemistry definitely was not one of my favourite subjects. They were mathematics and physics, but I also did very well in the three foreign languages.
2007-02-16 22:36:36 補充：
During my school years I spent considerable time with a variety of sports: football, bicycling, and my greatest passion, long distance skating on the Dutch canals and lakes. I also played chess, which in the Netherlands is ranked as a "denksport" (thought sport).
2007-02-16 22:37:25 補充：
I read widely about travels in distant lands, about astronomy, as well as about bridges and tunnels. Unfortunately, because of a heavy fever, my grades in the final exam of the HBS were not good enough to qualify for a university study stipend,
2007-02-16 22:38:10 補充：
which was very hard to obtain at that time, only 6 years after the end of the 2nd world war and a few years after the end of colonial war in Indonesia, which had been a large drain on Dutch resources.
2007-02-16 22:39:44 補充：
As I did not want to be a further financial burden on my parents for another 4 years or more (my father, a waiter, was often unemployed; my mother worked in the kitchen of a hospital), I chose to attend the Middelbare Technische School (MTS), middle technical school,
2007-02-16 22:40:15 補充：
now called the higher technical school (HTS), to train as a civil engineer. Although the MTS took 3 years, the second year was a practical year during which I earned a modest salary, enough to live on for about 2 years.
2007-02-16 22:40:54 補充：
From the summer of 1954 until February, 1958, with a 21-month interruption for compulsory military service in The Netherlands, I worked at the Bridge Construction Bureau of the City of Amsterdam.
2007-02-16 22:41:16 補充：
In the meanwhile, on a vacation trip in Switzerland, I met a sweet girl, Terttu Soininen, a student of Finnish history and literature at the University of Helsinki. A few years later I was able to entice her to marry me.
2007-02-16 22:41:45 補充：
What a great choice I made! She has been the center of a happy family; without her support, I would never have been able to devote so much of my time to studies and science.
2007-02-16 22:42:08 補充：
After our marriage in February, 1958, we settled in Gävle, a little town about 200 km north of Stockholm, where I had found a job in a building construction bureau. In December of that same year our daughter Ilona was born.
2007-02-16 22:42:27 補充：
In March, 1964, she got a little sister, Sylvia. Ilona is a registered nurse. Her son Jamie Paul is 12 years old. Sylvia is a marketing assistant in München, Germany. All were present in Stockholm, Uppsala and Gävle during the Nobel week. We had a happy and unforgettable time.
2007-02-16 22:43:03 補充：
All this time I had longed for an academic career. One day, at the beginning of 1958, I saw an advertisement in a Swedish newspaper from the Department of Meteorology of Stockholm Högskola (from 1961, Stockholm University) announcing an opening for a computer programmer.
2007-02-16 22:43:31 補充：
Although I had not the slightest experience in this subject, I applied for the job and had the great luck to be chosen from among many candidates. On July 1, 1959, we moved to Stockholm and I started with my second profession.
2007-02-16 22:43:55 補充：
At that time the Meteorology Institute of Stockholm University (MISU) and the associated International Meteorological Institute (IMI) were at the forefront of meteorological research and many top researchers worked in Stockholm for extended periods.
2007-02-16 22:44:29 補充：
Only about a year earlier the founder of the institutes, Prof. Gustav Rossby, one of the greatest meteorologists ever, had died suddenly and was succeeded by Dr. Bert Bolin, another famous meteorologist, now "retired" as director of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC).
2007-02-16 22:44:51 補充：
At that time Stockholm University housed the fastest computers in the world (BESK and its successor FACIT).
2007-02-16 22:45:33 補充：
With the exception of participation in a field campaign in northern Sweden, led by Dr. Georg Witt to measure the properties of noctilucent clouds, which appear during summer at about 85 km altitude in the coldest parts of atmosphere,
2007-02-16 22:46:46 補充：
and some programming work related to this, I was until about 1966 mainly involved in various meteorological projects, especially helping to build and run some of the first numerical (barotropic) weather prediction models.
2007-02-16 22:48:19 補充：
I also programmed a model of a tropical cyclone for a good friend, Hilding Sundquist, now a professor at MISU. At that time programming was a special art. Advanced general computer languages, such as Algol or Fortran, had not been developed,
2007-02-16 22:48:40 補充：
so that all programmes had to be written in specific machine code. One also had to make sure that all operations yielded numbers in the range -1 < x < 1, which meant that one had to scale all equations to stay within these limits; otherwise the computations would yield wrong results.
2007-02-16 22:49:07 補充：
The great advantage of being at a university department was that I got the opportunity to follow some of the lecture courses that were offered at the university.
2007-02-16 22:49:36 補充：
By 1963 I could thus fulfill the requirement for the filosofie kandidat (corresponding to a Master of Science) degree, combining the subjects mathematics, mathematical statistics, and meteorology.
2007-02-16 22:50:23 補充：
Unfortunately, I could include neither physics nor chemistry in my formal education, because this would have required my participation in time consuming laboratory excercises. In this way I became a pure theoretician.
2007-02-16 22:52:06 補充：
In this way I became a pure theoreticianI have, however, always felt close to experimental work, which I have strongly supported during my later years as director of research at the National Center of Atmospheric Research (NCAR) in Boulder,
2007-02-16 22:52:32 補充：
and at the Max-Planck-Institute for Chemistry in Mainz, Germany (since 1980).
Being employed at the meteorological research institute, it was quite natural to take a meteorological topic for my filosofie licentiat thesis (comparable to a Ph.D. thesis).
2007-02-16 22:53:29 補充：
Building on my earlier experience further development of a numerical model of a tropical cyclone had been proposed to me.
2007-02-16 22:53:54 補充：
However, around 1965 I was given the task of helping a scientist from the U.S. to develop a numerical model of the oxygen allotrope distribution in the stratosphere, mesosphere and lower thermosphere.
2007-02-16 22:54:22 補充：
This project got me highly interested in the photochemistry of atmospheric ozone and I started an intensive study of the scientific literature. This gave me an understanding of the status of scientific knowledge about stratospheric chemistry by the latter half of the 1960's,
2007-02-16 22:54:45 補充：
thus setting the "initial conditions" for my scientific career. Instead of the initially proposed research project, I preferred research on stratospheric chemistry, which was generously accepted.
2007-02-16 22:55:36 補充：
At that time the main topics of research at the Meteorological Institute at the University of Stockholm were dynamics, cloud physics, the carbon cycle, studies of the chemical composition of rainwater, and especially the "acid rain" problem
2007-02-16 22:56:13 補充：
which was largely "discovered" at MISU through the work of Svante Odén and Erik Eriksson. Several researchers at MISU, among them Prof. Bolin and my good friend and fellow student Henning Rodhe,
2007-02-16 23:04:48 補充：
尚未貼完
另兩位資料也有
2007-02-16 23:10:12 補充：
生平及求學和研究經過都有
2007-02-17 20:52:21 補充：
我的位置已寫滿了---無法再發表了
如果要我幫您翻哪段或哪句可mail
[email protected]
您不會叫我翻整篇吧?
翻是沒問題
要花太多時間了

By Gilbert
at 2007-02-17T02:24

# Civil Engineering, 1951-1954, Amsterdam, Holland.
# Academic Studies and Research Activities 1959-1973 at the University of Stockholm, Sweden.
# M.Sc. (Filosofie Kandidat), 1963.
# Ph.D. (Filosofie Licentiat), Meteorology, 1968,
# Title: Determination of parameters appearing in the dry and the wet photochemical theories for ozone in the stratosphere, Examiner: Prof. Dr. Bert Bolin, Stockholm, Sweden. D.Sc. (Filosofie Doctor), 1973, Stockholm,Sweden,
Title: On the photochemistry of ozone in the stratosphere and troposphere and pollution of the stratosphere by high-flying aircraft, Promoters: Prof. Dr. John Houghton, FRS, Oxford, and Dr. R.P. Wayne, Oxford.
(Ph.D. and D.Sc. degrees were given with the highest possible distinctions).
詳細的資料請參閱參考資料所列的網址

求1995年諾貝爾化學獎得主的介紹...20點!!!! - 社會議題

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